INTRODUCTION:
Shortly after achieving independence from
Britain in the early 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation of
Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with the first
democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s. Zanzibar's
semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led to two contentious
elections since 1995, which the ruling party won despite international
observers' claims of voting irregularities.
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GEOGRAPHY:
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CLIMATE:
DAR ES SALAAM ARPT 6 86 S, 39 20
E, 180 feet (55 meters) above sea level.
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MTWARA 10 26 S, 40 18 E, 370 feet (113 meters) above sea level.
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SONGEA 10 68 S, 35 58 E, 3500 feet (1067 meters) above sea level.
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KIGOMA 4 88 S, 29 63 E, 2903 feet (885 meters) above sea level.
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BUKOBA 1 33 S, 31 81 E, 3730 feet (1137 meters) above sea level.
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TANGA 5 8 S, 39 6 E, 114 feet (35 meters) above sea level.
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DODOMA 6 16 S, 35 76 E, 3674 feet (1120 meters) above sea level.
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ZANZIBAR 6 21 S, 39 21 E, 49 feet (15 meters) above sea level.
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PEOPLE:
Population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Density varies from 1
person per square kilometer (3 per sq. mi.) in arid regions to 51 per square
kilometer (133 per sq. mi.) in the mainland's well-watered highlands to 134 per
square kilometer (347 per sq. mi.) on Zanzibar. More than 80% of the population
is rural. Dar es Salaam is the capital and largest city; Dodoma, located in the
center of Tanzania, has been designated the new capital and the Parliament sits
there, although action to move the capital has stalled.
The African population consists of more than 120 ethnic groups, of which the
Sukuma, Haya, Nyakyusa, Nyamwezi, and Chaga have more than 1 million members.
The majority of Tanzanians, including such large tribes as the Sukuma and the
Nyamwezi, are of Bantu stock. Groups of Nilotic or related origin include the
nomadic Masai and the Luo, both of which are found in greater numbers in
neighboring Kenya. Two small groups speak languages of the Khoisan family
peculiar to the Bushman and Hottentot peoples. Cushitic-speaking peoples,
originally from the Ethiopian highlands, reside in a few areas of Tanzania.
Although much of Zanzibar's African population came from the mainland, one group
known as Shirazis traces its origins to the island's early Persian settlers.
Non-Africans residing on the mainland and Zanzibar account for 1% of the total
population. The Asian community, including Hindus, Sikhs, Shi'a and Sunni
Muslims, and Goans, has declined by 50% in the past decade to 50,000 on the
mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans
reside in Tanzania.
Each ethnic group has its own language, but the national language is Kiswahili,
a Bantu-based tongue with strong Arabic borrowings.
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HISTORY:
Tanganyika/Tanzania
Northern Tanganyika's famed Olduvai Gorge has provided rich evidence of the
area's prehistory, including fossil remains of some of humanity's earliest
ancestors. Discoveries suggest that East Africa may have been the site of human
origin.
Little is known of the history of Tanganyika's interior during the early
centuries of the Christian era. The area is believed to have been inhabited
originally by ethnic groups using a click-tongue language similar to that of
Southern Africa's Bushmen and Hottentots. Although remnants of these early
tribes still exist, most were gradually displaced by Bantu farmers migrating
from the west and south and by Nilotes and related northern peoples. Some of
these groups had well-organized societies and controlled extensive areas by the
time the Arab slavers, European explorers, and missionaries penetrated the
interior in the first half of the 19th century.
The coastal area first felt the impact of foreign influence as early as the 8th
century, when Arab traders arrived. By the 12th century, traders and immigrants
came from as far away as Persia (now Iran) and India. They built a series of
highly developed city and trading states along the coast, the principal one
being Kibaha, a settlement of Persian origin that held ascendancy until the
Portuguese destroyed it in the early 1500s.
The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama explored the East African coast in 1498
on his voyage to India. By 1506, the Portuguese claimed control over the entire
coast. This control was nominal, however, because the Portuguese did not
colonize the area or explore the interior. Assisted by Omani Arabs, the
indigenous coastal dwellers succeeded in driving the Portuguese from the area
north of the Ruvuma River by the early 18th century. Claiming the coastal strip,
Omani Sultan Seyyid Said (l804-56) moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1841.
European exploration of the interior began in the mid-19th century. Two German
missionaries reached Mt. Kilimanjaro in the 1840s. British explorers Richard
Burton and John Speke crossed the interior to Lake Tanganyika in 1857. David
Livingstone, the Scottish missionary-explorer who crusaded against the slave
trade, established his last mission at Ujiji, where he was 'found' by Henry
Morton Stanley, an American journalist-explorer, who had been commissioned by
the New York Herald to locate him.
German colonial interests were first advanced in 1884. Karl Peters, who formed
the Society for German Colonization, concluded a series of treaties by which
tribal chiefs in the interior accepted German 'protection.' Prince Otto von
Bismarck's government backed Peters in the subsequent establishment of the
German East Africa Company.
In 1886 and 1890, Anglo-German agreements were negotiated that delineated the
British and German spheres of influence in the interior of East Africa and along
the coastal strip previously claimed by the Omani sultan of Zanzibar. In 1891,
the German Government took over direct administration of the territory from the
German East Africa Company and appointed a governor with headquarters at Dar es
Salaam.
Although the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and
roads to Tanganyika, European rule provoked African's resistance, culminating in
the Maji Maji rebellion of 1905-07. The rebellion, which temporarily united a
number of southern tribes and ended only after an estimated 120,000 Africans had
died from fighting or starvation, is considered by most Tanzanians to have been
one of the first stirrings of nationalism.
German colonial domination of Tanganyika ended after World War I when control of
most of the territory passed to the United Kingdom under a League of Nations
mandate. After World War II, Tanganyika became a UN trust territory under
British control. Subsequent years witnessed Tanganyika moving gradually toward
self-government and independence.
In 1954, Julius K. Nyerere, a school teacher who was then one of only two
Tanganyikans educated abroad at the university level, organized a political
party--the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). TANU-supported candidates
were victorious in the Legislative Council elections of September 1958 and
February 1959. In December 1959, the United Kingdom agreed to the establishment
of internal self-government following general elections to be held in August
1960. Nyerere was named chief minister of the subsequent government.
In May l961, Tanganyika became autonomous, and Nyerere became Prime Minister
under a new constitution. Full independence was achieved on December 9, 1961.
Mr. Nyerere was elected President when Tanganyika became a republic within the
Commonwealth a year after independence.
Zanzibar
An early Arab/Persian trading center, Zanzibar fell under Portuguese domination
in the 16th and early 17th centuries but was retaken by Omani Arabs in the early
18th century. The height of Arab rule came during the reign of Sultan Seyyid
Said, who encouraged the development of clove plantations, using the island's
slave labor.
The Arabs established their own garrisons at Zanzibar, Pemba, and Kilwa and
carried on a lucrative trade in slaves and ivory. By 1840, Said had transferred
his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar and established a ruling Arab elite. The
island's commerce fell increasingly into the hands of traders from the Indian
subcontinent, whom Said encouraged to settle on the island.
Zanzibar's spices attracted ships from as far away as the U.S. A U.S. consulate
was established on the island in 1837. The United Kingdom's early interest in
Zanzibar was motivated by both commerce and the determination to end the slave
trade. In 1822, the British signed the first of a series of treaties with Sultan
Said to curb this trade, but not until 1876 was the sale of slaves finally
prohibited.
The Anglo-German agreement of 1890 made Zanzibar and Pemba a British
protectorate. British rule through a Sultan remained largely unchanged from the
late 19th century until after World War II.
Zanzibar's political development began in earnest after 1956, when provision was
first made for the election of six nongovernmental members to the Legislative
Council. Two parties were formed: the Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP),
representing the dominant Arab and 'Arabized' minority, and the Afro-Shirazi
Party (ASP), led by Abeid Karume and representing the Shirazis and the African
majority.
The first elections were held in July 1957. The ASP won three of the six elected
seats, with the remainder going to independents. Following the election, the ASP
split; some of its Shirazi supporters left to form the Zanzibar and Pemba
People's Party (ZPPP). The January 1961 election resulted in a deadlock between
the ASP and a ZNP-ZPPP coalition.
On April 26, 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic
of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, this was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania on
October 29, 1964.
United Republic of Tanzania
Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom on December 19, 1963,
as a constitutional monarchy under the sultan. On January 12, 1964, the African
majority revolted against the sultan and a new government was formed with the
ASP leader, Abeid Karume, as President of Zanzibar and Chairman of the
Revolutionary Council. Under the terms of its political union with Tanganyika in
April 1964, the Zanzibar Government retained considerable local autonomy.
To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union Nyerere merged TANU with
the Zanzibar ruling party, the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar to form the
CCM (Chama cha Mapinduzi-CCM Revolutionary Party), on February 5, 1977. The CCM
was to be the sole instrument for mobilizing and controlling the population in
all significant political or economic activities. He envisioned the party as a
'two-way street' for the flow of ideas and policy directives between the village
level and the government. On April 26, 1977, the union of the two parties was
ratified in a new constitution. The merger was reinforced by principles
enunciated in the 1982 union constitution and reaffirmed in the constitution of
1984.
President Nyerere stepped down from office and was succeeded as President by Ali
Hassan Mwinyi in 1985. Nyerere retained his position as Chairman of the ruling
party for 5 more years and was influential in Tanzanian politics until his death
in October 1999. The current President, Jakaya Kikwete, was elected in December
2005. Zanzibar President Amani Abeid Karume, the son of Zanzibar?s first
president, was elected in 2000, in general elections that were marked by
widespread irregularities throughout the Isles. His predecessor, Salmin Amour,
was first elected in single-party elections in 1990, then re-elected in 1995 in
Zanzibar?s first multi-party elections. These elections also were tainted by
widespread irregularities on Zanzibar.
GOVERNMENT:
Tanzania's president and National Assembly members are elected concurrently by
direct popular vote for 5-year terms. The president appoints a prime minister
who serves as the government's leader in the National Assembly. The president
selects his cabinet from among National Assembly members. The Constitution also
empowers him to nominate 10 non-elected members of Parliament, who also are
eligible to become cabinet members. Elections for president and all National
Assembly seats were held in December 2005.
The unicameral National Assembly has up to 325 members: the Attorney General,
the Speaker, five members elected from the Zanzibar House of Representatives to
participate in the Parliament, 75 special women's seats apportioned among the
political parties based on their election results, 233 constituent seats from
the mainland, and up to 10 members nominated by the president. In 2006, the
president nominated seven members and the Speaker was elected to a constituent
seat, bringing the total number of Members of Parliament to 320. The ruling
party, CCM, holds about 82% of the seats in the Assembly. Laws passed by the
National Assembly are valid for Zanzibar only in specifically designated union
matters.
Zanzibar's House of Representatives has jurisdiction over all non-union matters.
There are currently 81 members in the House of Representatives in Zanzibar: 50
elected by the people, 10 appointed by the president of Zanzibar, 5 ex officio
members, an attorney general appointed by the president, and 15 special seats
allocated to women. Ostensibly, Zanzibar's House of Representatives can make
laws for Zanzibar without the approval of the union government as long as it
does not involve union-designated matters. The terms of office for Zanzibar's
president and House of Representatives also are 5 years. The semiautonomous
relationship between Zanzibar and the union is a relatively unique system of
government.
Tanzania has a five-level judiciary combining the jurisdictions of tribal,
Islamic, and British common law. Appeal is from the primary courts through the
district courts, resident magistrate courts, to the high courts, and the high
courts to the Court of Appeals. District and resident court magistrates are
appointed by the Chief Justice, except for judges of the High Court and Court of
Appeals, who are appointed by the president. The Zanzibari court system
parallels the legal system of the union, and all cases tried in Zanzibari
courts, except for those involving constitutional issues and Islamic law, can be
appealed to the Court of Appeals of the union. A commercial court was
established on the mainland in September 1999 as a division of the High Court.
For administrative purposes, Tanzania is divided into 26 regions--21 on the
mainland, 3 on Zanzibar, and 2 on Pemba. Ninety-nine district councils have been
created to further increase local authority. These districts are also now
referred to as local government authorities. Currently there are 114 councils
operating in 99 districts, 22 are urban and 92 are rural. The 22 urban units are
classified further as city (Dar es Salaam and Mwanza), municipal (Arusha, Dodoma,
Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga), and town
councils (the remaining 11 communities).
Principal Government Officials
President--Jakaya Kikwete
Vice President--Dr. Ali Mohamed Shein
Prime Minister--Edward Lowassa
President of Zanzibar--Amani Abeid Karume
Minister of Foreign Affairs--Bernard Membe
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ECONOMY:
Significant measures have been taken to liberalize the Tanzanian economy along
market lines and encourage both foreign and domestic private investment.
Beginning in 1986, the Government of Tanzania embarked on an adjustment program
to dismantle state economic controls and encourage more active participation of
the private sector in the economy. The program included a comprehensive package
of policies which reduced the budget deficit and improved monetary control,
substantially depreciated the overvalued exchange rate, liberalized the trade
regime, removed most price controls, eased restrictions on the marketing of food
crops, freed interest rates, and initiated a restructuring of the financial
sector.
In July 2003, Tanzania's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF)
arrangement with the International Monetary Fund was extended for an additional
three years; it will expire in July 2006. In June 2003, the Tanzanian Government
successfully completed a previous three-year PRGF, the successor program to the
Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF). From 1996-1999, Tanzania had an
ESAF agreement. Tanzania also embarked on a major restructuring of state-owned
enterprises. The program has so far divested 335 out of some 425 parastatal
entities. Overall, real economic growth has averaged about 4% a year, much
better than the previous 20 years, but not enough to improve the lives of
average Tanzanians. Also, the economy remains overwhelmingly donor-dependent.
Moreover, Tanzania has an external debt of $7.5 billion. The servicing of this
debt absorbs about 40% of total government expenditures. Tanzania has qualified
for debt relief under the enhanced Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
initiative. Debts worth over $6 billion were canceled following implementation
of the Paris Club VII Agreement.
Agriculture dominates the economy, providing more than 46% of GDP and 80% of
employment. Cash crops, including coffee, tea, cotton, cashews, sisal, cloves,
and pyrethrum, account for the vast majority of export earnings. The volume of
all major crops--both cash and goods, which have been marketed through official
channels--have increased over the past few years, but large amounts of produce
never reach the market. Poor pricing and unreliable cash flow to farmers
continue to frustrate the agricultural sector.
Accounting for less than 10% of GDP, Tanzania's industrial sector is one of the
smallest in Africa. It was hit hard during the 2002-2003 drought years by
persistent power shortages caused by low rainfall in the hydroelectric dam
catchment area, a condition compounded by years of neglect and bad management at
the state-controlled electric company. Management of the electric company was
contracted to the private sector in 2003.
The main industrial activities include producing raw materials, import
substitutes, and processed agricultural products. Foreign exchange shortages and
mismanagement continue to deprive factories of much-needed spare parts and have
reduced factory capacity to less than 30%.
Despite Tanzania's past record of political stability, an unattractive
investment climate has discouraged foreign investment. Government steps to
improve that climate include redrawing tax codes, floating the exchange rate,
licensing foreign banks, and creating an investment promotion center to cut red
tape. In terms of mineral resources and the largely untapped tourism sector,
Tanzania could become a viable and attractive market for U.S. goods and
services.
Zanzibar's economy is based primarily on the production of cloves (90% grown on
the island of Pemba), the principal foreign exchange earner. Exports have
suffered with the downturn in the clove market. Tourism is an increasingly
promising sector, and a number of new hotels and resorts have been built in
recent years.
The Government of Zanzibar has been more aggressive than its mainland
counterpart in instituting economic reforms and has legalized foreign exchange
bureaus on the islands. This has loosened up the economy and dramatically
increased the availability of consumer commodities. Furthermore, with external
funding, the government plans to make the port of Zanzibar a free port.
Rehabilitation of current port facilities and plans to extend these facilities
will be the precursor to the free port. The island's manufacturing sector is
limited mainly to import substitution industries, such as cigarettes, shoes, and
process agricultural products. In 1992, the government designated two
export-producing zones and encouraged the development of offshore financial
services. Zanzibar still imports much of its staple requirements, petroleum
products, and manufactured articles.
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MILITARY:
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