Introduction:
Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured three decades of
civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya before a semblance of peace was
finally restored in 1990. The government eventually drafted a democratic
constitution, and held flawed presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998,
a rebellion broke out in northern Chad, which sporadically flares up despite
several peace agreements between the government and the rebels. In 2005 new
rebel groups emerged in western Sudan and have made probing attacks into eastern
Chad. Power remains in the hands of an ethnic minority. In June 2005, President
Idriss DEBY held a referendum successfully removing constitutional term limits.
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Geography
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Climate:
NDJAMENA
12 13 N, 15 3 E, 967 feet (295 meters) above sea level.
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SARH 9 15 N, 18 38 E, 1197 feet (365 meters) above sea level.
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FAYA-LARGEAU 18 0 N, 19 16 E, 767 feet (234 meters) above sea level.
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ABECHE 13 85 N, 20 85 E, 1801 feet (549 meters) above sea level.
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MOUNDOU 8 61 N, 16 6 E, 1384 feet (422 meters) above sea level.
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PEOPLE
There are more than 200 ethnic groups in Chad. Those in the north and east are
generally Muslim; most southerners are Christians or animists. Through their
long religious and commercial relationships with Sudan and Egypt, many of the
peoples in Chad's eastern and central regions have become more or less Arabized,
speaking Arabic and engaging in many other Arab cultural practices as well. More
than three-quarters of the Chadian population is rural.
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HISTORY
Chad has a long and rich history. A humanoid skull found in Borkou was dated to
be more than 3 million years old. Because in ancient times the Saharan area was
not totally arid, Chad's population was more evenly distributed than it is
today. For example, 7,000 years ago, the north central basin, now in the Sahara,
was still filled with water, and people lived and farmed around its shores.
Cliff paintings in Borkou and Ennedi depict elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes,
cattle, and camels; only camels survive there today. The region has been known
to traders and geographers since the late Middle Ages. Since then, Chad has
served as a crossroads for the Muslim peoples of the desert and savanna regions,
and the animist Bantu tribes of the tropical forests.
Sao people lived along the Chari River for thousands of years, but their
relatively weak chiefdoms were overtaken by the powerful chiefs of what were to
become the Kanem-Bornu and Baguirmi kingdoms. At their peak, these two kingdoms
and the kingdom of Ouaddai controlled a good part of what is now Chad, as well
as parts of Nigeria and Sudan. From 1500 to 1900, Arab slave raids were
widespread. The French first penetrated Chad in 1891, establishing their
authority through military expeditions primarily against the Muslim kingdoms.
The first major colonial battle for Chad was fought in 1900 between the French
Major Lamy and the African leader Rabah, both of whom were killed in the battle.
Although the French won that battle, they did not declare the territory pacified
until 1911; armed clashes between colonial troops and local bands continued for
many years thereafter.
In 1905, administrative responsibility for Chad was placed under a governor
general stationed at Brazzaville in what is now Congo. Although Chad joined the
French colonies of Gabon, Oubangui-Charo, and Moyen Congo to form the Federation
of French Equatorial Africa (AEF) in 1910, it did not have colonial status until
1920. The northern region of Chad was occupied by the French in 1914. In 1959,
the territory of French Equatorial Africa was dissolved, and four states--Gabon,
the Central African Republic, Congo (Brazzaville), and Chad--became autonomous
members of the French Community. On August 11, 1960 Chad became an independent
nation under its first president, Francois Tombalbaye.
A long civil war began as a tax revolt in 1965 and soon set the Muslim north and
east against the southern-led government. Even with the help of French combat
forces, the Tombalbaye government was never able to quell the insurgency.
Tombalbaye's rule became more irrational and brutal, leading the military to
carry out a coup in 1975 and to install Gen. Felix Malloum, a southerner, as
head of state. In 1978, Malloum's government was broadened to include more
northerners. Internal dissent within the government led the northern prime
minister, Hissein Habre, to send his forces against the national army in the
capital city of N'Djamena in February 1979. The resulting civil war amongst the
11 emergent factions was so widespread that it rendered the central government
largely irrelevant. At that point, other African governments decided to
intervene.
A series of four international conferences held first under Nigerian and then
Organization of African Unity (OAU) sponsorship attempted to bring the Chadian
factions together. At the fourth conference, held in Lagos, Nigeria, in August
1979, the Lagos accord was signed. This accord established a transitional
government pending national elections. In November 1979, the National Union
Transition Government (GUNT) was created with a mandate to govern for 18 months.
Goukouni Oueddei, a northerner, was named President; Colonel Kamougue, a
southerner, Vice President; and Habre, Minister of Defense. This coalition
proved fragile; in January 1980, fighting broke out again between Goukouni's and
Habre's forces. With assistance from Libya, Goukouni regained control of the
capital and other urban centers by year?s end. However, Goukouni?s January 1981
statement that Chad and Libya had agreed to work for the realization of complete
unity between the two countries generated intense international pressure and
Goukouni?s subsequent call for the complete withdrawal of external forces.
Libya?s partial withdrawal to the Aozou Strip in northern Chad cleared the way
for Habre?s forces to enter N?Djamena in June. French troops and an OAU
peacekeeping force of 3,500 Nigerian, Senegalese, and Zairian troops (partially
funded by the United States) remained neutral during the conflict.
Habre continued to face armed opposition on various fronts, and was brutal in
his repression of suspected opponents, massacring and torturing many during his
rule. In the summer of 1983, GUNT forces launched an offensive against
government positions in northern and eastern Chad with Libyan support. In
response to Libya's direct intervention, French and Zairian forces intervened to
defend Habre, pushing Libyan and rebel forces north of the 16th parallel. In
September 1984, the French and the Libyan governments announced an agreement for
the mutual withdrawal of their forces from Chad. By the end of the year, all
French and Zairian troops were withdrawn. Libya did not honor the withdrawal
accord, and its forces continued to occupy the northern third of Chad.
Southern rebel commando groups (CODO) in southern Chad were broken up by
government massacres in 1984. In 1985 Habre briefly reconciled with some of his
most powerful opponents, including the Chadian Democratic Front and the
Coordinating Action Committee of the Democratic Revolutionary Council. Goukouni
also began to rally toward Habre, and with his support Habre successfully
expelled Libyan forces from most of Chadian territory. A cease-fire between Chad
and Libya held from 1987 to 1988, and negotiations over the next several years
led to the 1994 International Court of Justice decision granting Chad
sovereignty over the Aouzou strip, effectively ending Libyan occupation.
However, rivalry between Hadjerai, Zaghawa, and Gorane groups within the
government grew in the late 1980s. In April 1989, Idriss Deby, one of Habre's
leading generals and a Zaghawa, defected and fled to Darfur in Sudan, from which
he mounted a Zaghawa-supported series of attacks on Habre (a Gorane). In
December 1990, with Libyan assistance and no opposition from French troops
stationed in Chad, Deby?s forces successfully marched on N?Djamena. After 3
months of provisional government, Deby?s Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS)
approved a national charter on February 28, 1991, with Deby as president.
In the following 2 years, Deby faced at least two coup attempts. Government
forces clashed violently with rebel forces (including the Movement for Democracy
and Development, MDD, National Revival Committee for Peace and Democracy
(CSNPD), Chadian national Front (FNT), and the Western Armed Forces, FAO) near
Lake Chad and in southern regions of the country. Earlier French demands for the
country to hold a national conference resulted in the gathering of 750 delegates
representing political parties (legalized in 1992), the government, trade
unions, and the army to discuss creation of a pluralist democratic regime.
Unrest continued, however, sparked in part by large-scale killings of civilians
in southern Chad. The CSNPD, led by Kette Moise and other southern groups,
entered into a peace agreement with government forces in 1994, which later broke
down. Two new groups, the Armed Forces for a Federal Republic (FARF) led by
former Kette ally Laokein Barde and the Democratic Front for Renewal (FDR), and
a reformulated MDD clashed with government forces 1994-95.
Talks with political opponents in early 1996 did not go well, but Deby announced
his intent to hold presidential elections in June. Deby won the country?s first
multi-party presidential elections with support in the second round from
opposition leader Kebzabo, defeating General Kamougue (leader of the 1975 coup
against Tombalbaye). Deby?s MPS party won 63 of 125 seats in the January 1997
legislative elections. International observers noted numerous serious
irregularities in presidential and legislative election proceedings.
By mid-1997 the government signed peace deals with FARF and the MDD leadership
and succeeded in cutting off the groups from their rear bases in the Central
African Republic and Cameroon. Agreements also were struck with rebels from the
National Front of Chad (FNT) and Movement for Social Justice and Democracy in
October 1997. However, peace was short-lived, as FARF rebels clashed with
government soldiers, finally surrendering to government forces in May 1998.
Barde was killed in the fighting, as were hundreds of other southerners, most
civilians.
From 1998 to 2003, Chadian Movement for Justice and Democracy (MDJT) rebels
skirmished periodically with government troops in the Tibesti region, resulting
in hundreds of civilian, government, and rebel casualties, but little ground won
or lost. Following an accord with the government in 2003, several hundred rebels
rejoined the Chadian Army. Armed remnants of the MDJT linger in the Tibesti
region, but no active armed opposition has emerged in other parts of Chad.
In May 2001, Deby won a flawed 63% first-round victory in presidential elections
after legislative elections were postponed until spring 2002. Six opposition
leaders were arrested (twice), and one opposition party activist was killed
following the announcement of election results. However, despite claims of
government corruption, favoritism of Zaghawas, and security forces abuses,
opposition party and labor union calls for general strikes and more active
demonstrations against the government were unsuccessful.
In May 2004, the National Assembly voted in favor of an amendment to the
Constitution that would allow President Deby to run again. The amendment was
approved in a national referendum June 2005 and abolished presidential term
limits. In April 2006, the capital city of N?djamena was attacked by the United
Front for Democratic Change--which was led by the Tama ethnic
group--coordinating with another Chadian rebel organization from President
Deby?s Zaghawa ethnic group. The government put down the attacks. On May 3, 2006
Deby was elected to his third presidential term with a substantial majority,
according to Chadian election officials. Provisional figures showed Deby
receiving 77.6% of the vote. More than 60% of Chad's 5.8 million registered
voters cast ballots.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
The constitutional basis for the government is the 1996 Constitution. A strong
executive branch headed by the president dominates the Chadian political system.
Following his December 1990 military overthrow of Hissein Habre, Idriss Deby in
the mid-1990s gradually restored basic functions of government and entered into
agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
intended to carry out substantial economic reforms, including the Doba Basin oil
extraction project.
The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the Council of
State (or cabinet), and exercises considerable influence over appointments of
judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad?s parastatal firms. In
cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the
National Assembly President and Council of State, may declare a state of
emergency. Most of the Deby?s key advisers are members of the Zaghawa clan,
although some southern and opposition personalities are represented in his
government.
According to the 1996 Constitution, National Assembly deputies are elected by
universal suffrage for 4-year terms. Parliamentary elections were last held in
April 2002, with President Deby?s MPS party winning a large majority. The
Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and
can hold special sessions as necessary and called by the prime minister.
Deputies elect a president of the National Assembly every 2 years. Assembly
deputies or members of the executive branch may introduce legislation; once
passed by the Assembly, the president must take action to either sign or reject
the law within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister?s
plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority
vote of no confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive
branch?s program twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and
call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises
considerable influence over the National Assembly through the MPS party
structure.
Despite the Constitution?s guarantee of judicial independence from the executive
branch, the president names most key judicial officials. The Supreme Court is
made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councilors chosen by
the president and National Assembly; appointments are for life. The
Constitutional Council, with nine judges elected to 9-year terms, has the power
to review all legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their
adoption. The Constitution recognizes customary and traditional law in locales
where it is recognized and to the extent it does not interfere with public order
or constitutional guarantees of equality for all citizens.
Principal Government Officials
President--Idriss Deby
Prime Minister--Nouradine Delwa Kassire Koumakoye
Minister of Foreign Affairs and African Integration--Ahmad Allam-mi
President of the National Assembly--Nassour Guelengdouksia Ouaidou
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ECONOMY
In 2006, Chad's GDP was estimated at approximately $5.255 billion. Oil, cotton,
cattle, and gum arabic are Chad?s major exports.
The effects on foreign investment of years of civil war are still felt today, as
investors who left Chad between 1979-82 have only recently begun to regain
confidence in the country's future. The most important economic venture to date
is the Doba Basin oil extraction project in southern Chad. The project included
unique mechanisms for World Bank, private sector, government, and civil society
collaboration to guarantee that future oil revenues would benefit local
populations and result in poverty alleviation.
Oil exploitation in the southern Doba region began in June 2000, with U.S.-based
Exxon Mobil leading a consortium in a $3.7 billion project to export oil via a
1,000-km. buried pipeline through Cameroon to the Gulf of Guinea. Beginning in
late 2000, development of Chad?s petroleum sector stimulated economic growth by
attracting major investment and increased levels of U.S. trade. Oil revenue
began trickling into the country in July 2004. It was hoped that this project
would serve as a catalyst for the entire economy by helping to reduce energy
costs and attracting additional trade and investment in other sectors. However,
the question remains whether Chad will continue to consolidate its economic
reforms and invest its oil revenues wisely in order to encourage a wider range
of economic initiatives. Political controversy surrounding elections and a
rebellion in northern Chad also dampen Chad's economic prospects somewhat by
exposing the weaknesses in Chad's political institutions.
The U.S. Government expressed both concern and disappointment after the
Government of Chad on August 26, 2006 ordered Chevron Oil Corporation and
Petronas, members of the Exxon Mobil-led and operated oil consortium, to cease
operations and leave Chad within 24 hours for alleged non-payment of income
taxes.
Chevron and Petronas entered into a tax agreement in 2000 with the government,
represented by Petroleum Minister Mahamat Hassan Nasser, when they replaced Elf
and Shell as minority members of the consortium. The companies assert that the
agreement authorizes them to use a special depreciation schedule allowing
greater tax deductions than those afforded consortium partner Exxon Mobil. The
Government of Chad, however, claimed that the 2000 tax agreement was illegal,
because it was negotiated by officials without proper authority and was not
vetted by the National Assembly. The Government of Chad also announced plans to
press charges against negotiating officials, and on August 28, 2006 replaced
Nasser, as well as Economic Minister Mahamat Ali Hassan and Farming Minister
Moucktar Moussa. Chevron and Petronas consider the Government of Chad to have
violated its contractual obligations and planned to seek recourse through all
diplomatic and legal means. While the U.S. takes no position on the merits of
the dispute, it has urged all parties involved to respect any binding
contractual commitments.
Despite recent development of the petroleum sector, more than 80% of the work
force is involved in agriculture (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing).
Like many other developing countries, Chad has a small formal sector and a
large, thriving informal sector. Statistics indicate the following distribution
as percentage of GDP: Agriculture--32.5% (farming, livestock, fishing);
industry--26.6%; and services--40.8%. Chad is highly dependent on foreign
assistance. Its principal donors include the European Union, France, and the
multilateral lending agencies.
Primary markets for Chadian exports include neighboring Cameroon and Nigeria and
France, Germany, and Portugal. Aside from oil, cotton remains a primary export,
although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation of CotonTchad, the
major cotton company that suffered from a decline in world cotton prices, has
been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Economic Community (EC),
and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). The
parastatal is now being privatized.
The other major export is livestock, herded to neighboring countries. Herdsmen
in the Sudanic and Sahelian zones raise cattle, sheep, goats, and, among the
non-Muslims, a few pigs. In the Saharan region, only camels and a few hardy
goats can survive. Chad also sells smoked and dried fish to its neighbors and
exports several million dollars worth of gum arabic to Europe and the United
States each year. Other food crops include millet, sorghum, peanuts, rice, sweet
potatoes, manioc, cassava, and yams.
After averaging 0.8% in 1999-2000, Chad?s real GDP growth was estimated at 8.9%
in 2001, and 10% in 2002 and 2003 as the Doba oil project accelerated. Inflation
rose from 3.7% in 2000 to 12.4% in 2001, dropped to 5.2% in 2002, and was
estimated to level out at 3% in 2004. These fluctuations were due in large part
to increasing demand from the Doba project but also to fluctuations in
agricultural production. After a disappointing agricultural campaign in 2000,
increased production during the 2001-02 timeframe helped reduce inflation in
2002. In 2003, the contraction in investments, the 7% appreciation in the CFA
Franc exchange rate, and bumper harvests combined to generate a 1% deflation in
place of the projected 4.3% inflation. Chad?s economic performance, at least
until the onset of oil exports, continued to depend on fluctuations in rainfall
and in prices of its principal export commodities, especially cotton.
Since 1995, the Government of Chad has made incremental progress in implementing
structural reforms and improving government finances under two successive
structural adjustment programs. Most state enterprises have been partially or
completely privatized, non-priority public spending has been lessened, and the
government has gradually liberalized some key sectors of the economy.
Liberalization of the telecommunications, cotton, and energy sectors is expected
to proceed over the next several years. Chad reached the enhanced Heavily
Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative completion point in May 2001.
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